Cultivation of Chick Pea in India

Role of pulses in Indian agriculture needs hardly any emphasis; India is a premier pulse growing country. The pulses are the integral part of the cropping systems of the farmers all over the country because these crops fit in well in the crop rotation and crop mixtures followed by them. Pulses are important constituents of the Indian diet and supply major part of the protein requirements. Pulse crops, besides being rich in protein and some of the essential amino acids, enrich the soil through symbolic nitrogen fixation from atmosphere.

In India, the total food production in 1999-2000 was about 209 million tones, out of this only 13.4 million tones was contributed by pulses. The production of cereals increased by 460 per cent since 1950-51 the production of pulses has increased only 178 per cent. There is a shortage of pulses in the country. The price has increased considerably and the consumer is hard hit to buy his requirements. Thus, the availability of pulse per capita per day has proportionately declined from 71 g (1955) to 36.9 g (1998) against the minimum requirement of 70 g per capita per day. There is not much possibility of the import of pulses in the country. The production of pulses has to be increased internally to meet the demand.

Gram commonly known as 'chick pea' or Bengal gram is the most important pulse crop in India. Chick pea occupies about 38 per cent of area under pulses and contributes about 50 per cent of the total pulse production of India. It is used for human consumption as well as for feeding to animals. It is eaten both whole fried or boiled and salted or more generally in the form of split pulse which is cooked and eaten. Both husks and bits of the 'dal' are valuable cattle feed. Fresh green leaves are used as vegetable (sag). Straw of chick pea is an excellent fodder for cattle. The grains are also used as vegetable (chhole). Chick pea flour (besan) is used in the preparation of various types of sweets. Chick pea is considered to have medicinal effects and it is used for blood purification. Chick pea contains 21.1 per cent protein, 61.5 per cent carbohydrates, 4.5 per cent fat. It is rich in calcium, iron and niacin.

ORIGIN AND HISTORY

Chick pea has been known in this country for a long time. It is said to be one of the oldest pulses known and cultivated from ancient times both in Asia and in Europe. Its probable place of origin lies in south western Asia, which is in the countries lying to the north-west of India such as Afghanistan and Persia. According to Aykroid and Daughty (1964) the centre of origin of chick pea is eastern Mediterranean. According to De Candolle, the fact that gram gas a Sanskrit name would indicate that the crop has been under cultivation in India longer than in any other country.

AREA AND DISTRIBUTION

Chick pea is one of the important pulse crop of the world cultivated over an area of 12.0 million hectares with a production of about 9.2 million tones of grain (1999). The important gram growing countries are India, Pakistan, Ethiopia, Burma and Turkey. India ranks first in the world in respect of production as well as acreage followed by Pakistan.

It is the most important pulse crop of India occupying an area of 6.3 million hectares with production of 5.1 million tones. The average yield of chick pea is only 806 kg per hectare. The major chick pea production areas are situated in Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Haryana, Maharashtra and Punjab.

CLASSIFICATION

The Indian grams have been classified into two broader groups:

1.         Desi or Brown Gram (Cicer arientinum L.): In this group the color of the seed ranges from yellow to dark brown. Seed size is usually small. It is the most widely grown group. Plants are small with good branching ability. Chromosomes number is 2n = 14, 16.

2.         Kabuli or White Gram (Cicer kabulium): In this group the color of the seed is usually white. Grains are bold and attractive. Yield potential of this group is poor as compared to desi or brown gram. Plants are generally taller than the desi gram and stand more or less erect. The chromosome number is 2n = 16.

BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION

Chick pea belongs to family Leguminoseae. It is a small, much branched herbaceous plant rarely exceeding 60 centimeter height. The botanical description of main parts of gram plant is given as:

ROOT SYSTEM

Chick pea has a well developed root system. The roots usually include a central strong tap root, with numerous lateral branches that spread out in all directions in the upper layer of soils. There are numerous nodules on roots. The rhizobium bacteria present in these nodules fix up atmospheric nitrogen.

Stem

Stem is generally grayish in appearance. The stem is branched with granular hairs on it. The main branch in gram usually produces not more than one secondary shoot, but in some types the main branches may produce numerous lateral branches.

Leaves

The leaves are pinnately compound, usually with one terminal leaflet. The number as well as the size of the leaflet, however, varies in different types. There are 9-15 pairs of leaflets. The leaflets of the pinnate leaves are small, and have serrated edges. The leaves are covered with grandular hairs. The color of the leaves also varies; some being light green while other is green or dark green. Certain types possess leaflets with red margins.

Flowers

The flowers are typical papilionaceous consisting of five sepals, five petals comprised of one standard, two wings and two keels, ten stamens, nine fused to form one stamina column and one free and a carpel with the style borne laterally on the ovary. The flowers are usually solitary and are present in the axils of the leaves. They are of various colors from white to shades of pink or blue. Anthesis starts between 9 AM and 10AM and may continue up to 3 PM. The flowers remain open for two days, the flowering process being over early on the second day. Self pollination is the rule, but cross pollination may occur to the extent of about 5-10% due to agency of insects. The pod is about 2 cm long and usually contains two seeds. A single plant produces about 50 to 150 pods.

Seed

The seeds are spherical in shape, wrinkled and with a pointed beak. They vary a great deal in size as well as in color. Color of seed may vary from white, light fawn, yellowish-orange, brown, dark brownish and with a little bluish tinge. The seedcoat may be smooth or puckered and wrinkled. The cotyledons are thick and yellowish in color.

CLIMATIC REQUIREMENTS

Chick pea is a winter season crop but severe cold and frost are injurious to it. Frost at the time of flowering results in the failure of the flowers to develop seeds or in the killing of the seeds inside the pod. It is generally grown under rain fed conditions but gives good returns in irrigated conditions as well. Excessive rains soon after sowing or at flowering and fruiting or hailstorms at ripening cause heavy loss. It is best suited to areas having moderate rainfall of 60-90 centimeters per annum.

SOIL

Chick pea is grown on a wide range of soils in India. In the north, gram is generally grown on moderately heavy soils. In Maharashtra and on the Deccan plateau, black cotton soils are used. Light soils, mostly sandy loams are preferred in Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Haryana and Rajasthan. Though gram is grown on all kinds of soils, sandy loam to clay loam is considered to be most suitable. The best type of soil for chick pea is one that is well drained and not too heavy. On dry and light soils, the plants remain short while on heavy soils having high water retention capacity, the vegetative growth is abundant, light becomes limiting and fruiting is retarded. The soil chosen for its cultivation should be free from excessive soluble salts and near neutral in reaction. However, it is not suited to soils having a pH higher than 8.5.

Physical and Chemical Properties of Aloe vera

Aloe vera being a cactus plant constitute of 90-95 % water with an average pH of 4.5. The solid material contains over 75 different chemicals including: vitamins, minerals, enzymes, sugars, anthraquinones or phenolic compounds, lignin, saponins, sterols, amino acids and salicylic acid.

• Vitamins – Contains the important anti-oxidants A, C and F. Vitamin B but do not contain vitamin D.

• Minerals - Sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, manganese, copper, zinc, chromium and iron are found in the aloe plant. Magnesium lactate inhibits histidine decarboxylase and prevents the formation of histamine from the amino acid, histadine.

• Enzymes - contains amylase, lipase and important enzyme a carboxy peptidase, inactivates bradykinins and produces anti-inflammatory effect.

• Sugar – are derived from the mucilage layer of the plant, under the rind surrounding the inner parenchyma or gel. Sugars are made up of the 25% of the solid constituent and contain mono- and polysaccharides. The polychain saccharides are by far the most important sugar, comprising of glucose and mannans (Beta - (1, 4) - linked acetylated mannan).

• Anthraquinones – The phenolic compounds are found in the sap. The bitter aloe consists of free anthraquinones and their derivates: Barbaloin-lO- (1151 anhydroglucosyl) — aloe-emodin-9-anthrone), lsobarbaloin, Anthrone-C-glycosides and chromones.

• Saponins – It is a soapy substance and form 3 % of the gel.

• Sallycis Acid – it is an aspirin like compound possessing anti- inflammatory and antibacterial effect.

• Amino Acids – Provides 20 of the 22 amino acids that are needed for human beings and the 5 essential amino acids that human body cannot synthesis and needed to be ingested.

Beneficial Properties

The ancient Egyptians referred to Aloe as the “plant of immortality” and include it with their funerary gifts buried with pharaohs; more and more evidences are arising with its potential healing properties as the time goes.

Some of the beneficial properties are:

• Helps heal wounds – when applied to wounds aloe gel has a mild anesthetic, relieve itching, swelling and pain. It also has an antibacterial and antifungal properties and increased blood flow to the affected area.

• Support Surgical Recovery – Decreases surgical recovery time.

• Soothes burns – can be used for first and second-degree burns.

• Minimize frostbites damage – prevents a decrease in blood flow to the frozen area a common cause of tissue loss in frostbites.

• Screens out radiation – protects the skin from x-ray radiation.

• Heals Psoriasis Lesion – it is a chronic non- contagious disease that mainly affects the skin, studies have indicated that application of aloe vera ointment has significantly reduces the skin psoriasis lesions.

• Eases Intestinal problems – it helps to ease inflammatory bowel diseases. This is done by regulating the gastrointestinal tract pH, increases motility, increasing stool specific gravity and reducing the population of certain microorganism of the gut.

• Lower Blood Sugar in Diabetes – there are studies indicating that diabetic patient given a daily supplement of Aloe vera shows a significant decrease in their blood sugar level.

• Reduces Arthritic Swelling – prevent arthritis and reduces inflammation of the joints that are affected by arthritis. It also prevents the autoimmune reaction connected with some form of arthritis.

There are promising studies and result released for disease such as HIV, Cancer such as lung cancer, etc.

Distribution

The natural range of Aloe is not clear since the species has been cultivated globally. It is suggested that the naturalized stands of the species occur through Africa (Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia), Canary and Madeira islands. The species is believed to have been introduced to China, Pakistan, India and various parts of Southern Europe in the later part of the 17th century. The species occur in temperate and tropical temperature and currently it is naturalized in Australia, Barbados, Belize, Nigeria, Paraguay and USA.

Aloe vera cultivation in Pakistan

Aloe is grown in warm tropical areas and cannot survive freezing temperatures. Aloe Vera can be cultivated on any soil for ‘dry land management’, sandy loamy soil is the best suited for it. Aloe Vera is generally propagated by root suckers by carefully digging out without damaging the parent plant and planting it in the main field. It can also be propagated through rhizome cuttings by digging out the rhizomes after the harvest of the crop and making them into 5-6 cm length cuttings with a minimum of 2-3 nodes on them. Then they are rooted in specially prepared sand beds or containers. The plant is ready for transplanting after the appearance of the first sprouts. The process of cultivating Aloe Vera involves the following process:

·     The ground is to be carefully prepared to keep free from weeds and the soil is ideally kept ideally slightly acidic. The soil should be supplied supplement in the form of ammonium nitrate every year.

·    The plants are set spaced out by 31 inches in rows and between the rows. At that rate, about 5,000 plants are set per acre. An 8-12 inch aloe pop would take about 18-24 months to fully mature.

·      The plants in a year’s time would bear flowers that are bright yellow in color. The leaves are 1 to 2 feet long and are cut without causing damage to the plant, so that it lasts for several years.

·     The crop can be harvested 4 times a year. At the rate of 3 leaves cut from each plant, about 12 leaves are the harvest per plant per year. On an average, the yield per acre annually is about 60,000 kg.

·       The leaves cut off close to the plant are placed immediately, with the cut end downwards, in a V- shaped wooden through of about 4 feet long and 12 to 18 inches deep.

·     The wooden through is set on a sharp incline so that the juice, which trickles from the leaves very rapidly, flows down its sides, and finally escapes by a hole at its lower end into a vessel placed beneath.

·    It takes about a quarter of an hour to cut leaves enough to fill a through. The troughs are so distributed as to be easily accessible to the cutters.

·     The leaves are neither infused nor boiled, nor is any use afterwards made of them except for manure. When the removed to a cask or reserved for evaporation. This may be done at once, or it may be delayed for weeks or even months.

·        The evaporation is generally conducted in a copper vessel; at the bottom of this is a large ladle, into which the impurities sink, and are from time to time removed as the boiling goes on.

·     As soon as the inspissations has reached the proper point, which is determined solely by the experienced eye of the workman, the thickened juice is poured into large gourds or into boxes, and allowed.

Aloe Vera is being grown in Pakistan at 100 acre of land, going to extract Aloe Vera Gel for domestic and international market.  Providing complete know-how along with technology transfer. Aloe Vera crop need less water and acidic lands are ideal for it's plantation.

Tinda Cultivation in Pakistan

Tinda is grown as a vegetable in Pakistan. Its main varieties are Annamalai Tinda and Arka Tind. Sandy loam soils rich in organic matter with good drainage and pH ranging from 6.5-7.5 is best suited for Tinda cultivation. This crop requires a moderate warm temperature. Its seeds are sown during January-February. For a better crop, 3.5 Kg/ha of seeds is required. The seeds are chemically treated with Trichoderma viride 4g or Pseudomonas fluroscens 10 g or Carbendazim 2g/kg of seed. 

Preparation of field

The field is ploughed to fine tilth and form long channels at 1.5m apart.

Sowing 
The seeds should be sown on one side of the channel. hin the seedlings after 15 days to maintain two/pit at 0.9 m spacing.

Irrigation
The field is irrigated before dibbling the seeds and thereafter once in a week.

Application of fertilizers

FYM 10 t/ha, N 20 kg/ha is applied as fertilizer as basal and N 20 kg/ha 30 days after sowing. Azospirillum and Phosphobacteria @ 2 kg/ha and Pseudomonas @ 2.5 kg/ha should be applied along with FYM 50 kg and neem cake @ 100 kg before last ploughing.

Weeding

Weeding is done thrice to control the weed population.

Plant protection

Beetles 
Bettles can be controlled by spraying Malathion 50 EC 1 ml/lit at weekly intervals.

Fruit fly 

1.      Collect the affected fruits and destroy.

2.      The fly population is low in hot day conditions and it is peak in rainy season.

3.      Hence adjust the sowing time accordingly. Expose the pupae by ploughing.

4.   Use polythene bags, fish meal trap with 5 g of wet fish meal and 1 g of Dichlorvos in cotton, 50 traps are required per hectare.

5.    Fish meal and Dichlorvos impregnated cotton are to be renewed once in 20 and 7 days respectively.

6.      Neem oil  @ 3.0 %  as foliar spray as need based

7.      Do not use DDT, copper and sulphur dust, as these are phytotoxic.

White fly
White flies can be controlled by spraying 5 % Neem Seed Kernal Extract.

Yield
10 t/ha in 90 days can be obtained.

Advantages of soybean plantation

·         Has short duration season and farmer could utilize rice, cotton, and rainfed fallow areas.

·         Well fit in the existing cropping system without clashing with major crops.

·     Economics often dictates crop sequence, but where choices are available, soybeans should follow crops other than soybean like cereals that make better use of the nitrogen provided by legume crops.

·      Soybean also provides good quality protein which is high in one of the limiting amino acids lysine, and is useful as a supplement to other cereals.

·         Soybean oil consists of 85 percent unsaturated fatty acid from which two essential fatty acids, linoleic and linolenic acids, not synthesized by the human are provided, therefore, soya oil is good for better health and heart patients.

Islamabad, the second most beautiful capital city of the World

Islamabad is the second most beautiful capital city of the world after London. It is spread over an area of 906 square kilometers (350 sq miles). Really it is an international truth. It is well planned city from the very first day of its designing. The government of Pakistan under leadership of president Ayub Khan was very interested to construct and design a beautiful city for its capital. Expert town planner from all over the world were consulted and contacted to design this beautiful city. More over every ruling government remained interested in increasing its beauty and natural glamour. This city is famous for its natural and constructional beauty, decoration, attractiveness and peaceful atmosphere.

From every angle this city is well developed that attracts the onlookers and its visitors. It has been declared as the second most beautiful capital city of the world and every Pakistani is proud of it. Every visitor is bewitched by its natural beauty and designing. It is famous and well known for its cleanliness, cool and cal atmosphere, peacefulness, attractiveness, freshness, forestry and dirt free environment. It is broad and most urbanized city of Pakistan. People of Pakistan are not only lovers of its beauty but are also ideologically attached with its name.

Islamabad is located in the beautiful northern part of the country that captures beautiful scenes of the northern areas of Pakistan. It is well maintained, up to date, modern, efficient, well ordered and well planned city divided into different zones and sectors. Every part, zone and sector of the city is recognized for its own distinction and beauty. It is also a best location for amusement and appraisable beauty. It beautiful buildings, green parks and lands offer a good opportunity for photography and holidays spending. It is highly developed and safe capital city, regarded as the best and most beautiful capital city in Asia and comparable with any capital city of the developed countries.

Most beautiful spots of the city are Parliament House, Faisal Mosque, National Secretariat, Prime Minister’s House, Eiwan e Sadar, Rawal Lake View Park, Margalla Hills, Grand Hyatt Islamabad, Islamabad Stock Exchange Towers, Saudi Pak Towers, Telecom Tower, The Centaurus , the World Trade Center Islamabad, National Monument Islamabad, Pak- China Friendship Centre,  Rawal Lake, Shakar Parian, Lok Virsa Museum, Margalla Hills, Daman-e- Koh, Peer Sohawa, Islamabad Zoo, National Herbarium Islamabad, Muree Hills, Daman e Koh, Blue Area, Rawal Pindi- Islamabad Metro Bus and National Museum of Natural History.                                          

How to protect and manage soybean crop

Weed Management: Weeds complete with soybeans for nutrient's, moisture and light and thus, reduce yield. The most effective measure for developing weed control in soybean vary; depending on types of weeds, degree of weed infestation, soil type, weather patterns, crop rotation, tillage methods, row spacing and equipments available. A good weed control program should includes combination of preventive, cultural, mechanical and chemical practices.

Preventive Measures: All these measures taken to prevent the introduction and spread of weeds include the use of weed free crop seed.

·          Weed free soil, seed and farm yard manure

·          Plant certified seed

·          Clean planting/harvesting equipments

Cultural Control

Crop Rotation: Crop rotation reduce the weeds populations of certain weeds common to a particular crop. It results in improved crop yield, quality, improved soil conditions, and reduces the chance of plant disease and insect infestation.

Tillage Practices: Deep and dry ploughing gives a substantial control of perennial weeds. By tillage method, weeds are buried with soil, thrown over and with disruption of the ultimate relationship between the weed, crop and soil.

Mechanical (Physical) Control: Hand weeding is the most common practice and used employed by the farmers, two weedings are recommenced during the growing period. Mechanical weeding by rotary weeder control the annual weeds effectively and economically.

Chemical Control: The experimental results have shown that proper use of pre-emergence herbicides i.e. Pendimethalin 8(Stomp), Trifluralin (Treflan) and Oxadiazon (Ronstar) can be applied after planting before the germination of soybean. These have been found very effective in controlling a wide range of grasses and broad leaf weeds.

Integrated Weed Control : This involves the use of two or more above mentioned weed control techniques. The combined use of more than one weed control technique is advantageous, because one technique rarely achieves complete eradication of weeds.

Diseases: About 35 diseases of economic importance are known to affect soybean throughout the world. Diseases can reduce yield from 10 to 30 percent, depending upon the severity, pathogen and weather conditions. In Pakistan only 6 major diseases have been observed and these are anthracnose, charcoal rot, purple seed stain, pod and stem blight and bacterial blight/pustule. Careful diagnosis is very important for the disease control strategies, because more than one pathogen or a complex may be responsible for final loss in yield and seed quality. Thus, the collection of samples is essential throughout the growing season.

Disease management programme should include the following methods:

Preventive Measures

·         Plant quality and healthy seed, free of mechanical damage.

·          Harvest seed soybeans as soon as they are mature.

·          Avoid planting in wet and poorly drained soils to reduce chances of the development of soil borne diseases (Root rot).

·          Keep the crop free from weeds because they may be the hosts to any diseases.

·          Seeds should be stored at 8 to 10 percent moisture at 15^oC temperature to have more seed viability.

Cultural Control

·         Plough down crop residues

·         Crop rotation with non-leguminous crop.

·         Plant early before the soil temperature rises.

·         Reduce plant population, increase row width and avoid high fertility to prevent a closed canopy, improve aeration and increase drying in the canopy.

Chemical Control

i) Seed Treatment: To protect from soil born diseases, seed should be treated before planting with one of the available fungicides; Captan, Dithane M-45, Benlate and Tecto @ 1.5-2 gms per 1 kg seed.

ii) Foliar Spray: At the appearance of disease symptoms, after field survey foliar spray with one of the systemic fungicides, Dithane M-45 @ 1 kg ha^-1, Benlate and Tecto @ 120-150 gm ha^-1 dissolved in 250 litre of water should be done after 10 to 15 days interval. This process should be repeated 2-3 times depending upon the severity of disease.

Integrated Disease Control

·         Use multi-race resistance varieties or least susceptible cultivars and avoid tall, viney cultivars that may lodge.

·         Use integrated control; combines high tolerate cultivar, good drainage, complete tillage, seed treatment and rotation with cereals.

Insects and their control

Major insects that damage soybean crops are stem fly, white fly, green stink bug, cut worm and larvae. Insects attack on all parts of the soybean plant and feed throughout the growing season. Certain insect can also provide access for disease organism and or transmit them directly to plants. Therefore, understanding the relationships between the insect and the crop will enable farmers to manage pests much better. A new practice to control insect attack is based on knowledge of the economic injury levels of the consequential insects. The economic injury levels is the population of insects that is capable of producing an amount of economic damage which is at least equal to the cost of controlling the insects. Wise monitoring of major insects is required in order to effectively make decision relative to insecticide application.

Bio Control

Many insect predators, parasites and pathogens occur in soybean fields that help in keeping population of pest species below economic levels. However, experience has shown us that beneficial insects and pathogens do not do a complete job, and that chemical control becomes necessary.

Cultural Control

Early planted soybeans tend to receive the majority of the overwhelming adult of flies and bugs, while late planted will alleviate some of the problems with these two insects and cutworm. Therefore, it is still more economical to plant early for high yields and control any potential insect problems with insecticides than it is to plant late for insect control.

Chemical Control

·         For cutworm and termite apply powder of BHC @ 7 kg per hectare or Dieldrin 20 EC @ 5-7 litres ha mixed with irrigation water.

·     For other insects especially flies, thrips and larvae spray; Dimecron 100% @ 600 ml ha or Methyl-Parathion 50 percent @ 800 to 1200 ml ha Somicidin 20 EC @ 400 to 600 ml ha dissolved in 250 litre of water, if attack is severe spray two times with an interval of 8-10 days.

Harvesting and Threshing: Soybean matures in 92 to 120 days depending upon growing season and the variety that was planted. Senescence is the decline in chemical activity associated with aging of plants and maturation is only loss of water from plants or seeds which are physiologically mature. Seeds are physiologically mature when they are no longer synthesizing food. Physiological loss of chlorophyll and acceleration of senescence is characteristics of dry, dehisent fruits (soybean pods). Ethylene and abscisic acid play an important role in abscission and dehiscence of pod and often capsule dry fruits (soybean). Oil and storage protein have reached their maximum dry weight. At this stage seed moisture is 45 to 55 percent, pods and stems are yellow, and leaves are yellow or have dropped. Delay in harvesting not only reduces seed quality but it also reduces harvesting efficiency and increases shattering losses. As soon as the pods are dry enough to open easily, harvest it, thresh after drying within 7-10 days and threshed seed must be cleaned before storage or marketing.

Yield: Number of pods per plant is a function of spacing and intercepted light while leaf N is a principal factor in determining soybean seed yield. The average farmers yield ranges from 1500 to 2500 kg ha. At Agricultural Research Institutes under high level management practices the yields range from 2500 to 3500 kg ha

Storage: Well dried seed should be stored at about 8 to 10 percent moisture content and 15^o C in tropical regions. To maintain dried seed at a low moisture level, two practices are feasible. these are:

i) To grow soybean for seed in an area where relative humidity is low.

ii) To use moisture proof containers for seed storage.

For long-term benefit and effectiveness, air conditioned storage in tropical and subtropical areas are more suitable. Adequately air-conditioned storage should be maintained at a temperature of 20^oC to 22^oC or less and a relative humidity of 60 percent or less when the storage period is of eight-nine months duration. Poor quality soybeans seeds will deteriorate quickly in storage than high quality seeds. In addition, the practice of "Carrying over" soybean seeds should be discouraged because this crop does not store well and the quality of seed quickly diminishes during the second over wintering period.